/******************************************************************************
 *
 * Project:  Common Portability Library
 * Purpose:  Simple implementation of POSIX VSI functions.
 * Author:   Frank Warmerdam, warmerdam@pobox.com
 *
 ******************************************************************************
 * Copyright (c) 1998, Frank Warmerdam
 * Copyright (c) 2008-2012, Even Rouault <even dot rouault at spatialys.com>
 *
 * Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a
 * copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"),
 * to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation
 * the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense,
 * and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the
 * Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
 *
 * The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
 * in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
 *
 * THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS
 * OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
 * FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL
 * THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
 * LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING
 * FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
 * DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
 ****************************************************************************
 *
 * NB: Note that in wrappers we are always saving the error state (errno
 * variable) to avoid side effects during debug prints or other possible
 * standard function calls (error states will be overwritten after such
 * a call).
 *
 ****************************************************************************/

#include "cpl_port.h"
#include "cpl_vsi.h"

#include <algorithm>
#include <cerrno>
#include <cstdarg>
#include <cstddef>
#include <cstdio>
#include <cstdlib>
#include <cstring>
#include <ctime>
#if HAVE_SYS_STAT_H
#  include <sys/stat.h>
#endif
#if HAVE_GETRLIMIT
#include <sys/time.h>
#include <sys/resource.h>
#endif

#include "cpl_config.h"
#include "cpl_error.h"
#include "cpl_string.h"

#ifdef _WIN32
#include <malloc.h> // For _aligned_malloc
#endif

// Uncomment to check consistent usage of VSIMalloc(), VSIRealloc(),
// VSICalloc(), VSIFree(), VSIStrdup().
// #define DEBUG_VSIMALLOC

// Uncomment to compute memory usage statistics.
// DEBUG_VSIMALLOC must also be defined.
// #define DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS

// Highly experimental, and likely buggy. Do not use, except for fixing it!
// DEBUG_VSIMALLOC must also be defined.
// #define DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_MPROTECT

#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_MPROTECT
#include <sys/mman.h>
#endif

// Uncomment to print every memory allocation or deallocation.
// DEBUG_VSIMALLOC must also be defined.
// #define DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_VERBOSE

// Number of bytes of the malloc/calloc/free that triggers a debug trace.
// Can be 0 for all allocs.
#define THRESHOLD_PRINT 10000

// Uncomment to print GDAL block cache use.
// Only used if DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_VERBOSE is enabled.
// #define DEBUG_BLOCK_CACHE_USE

#ifdef DEBUG_BLOCK_CACHE_USE
extern "C" GIntBig CPL_DLL CPL_STDCALL GDALGetCacheUsed64(void);
#endif


/* Unix or Windows NT/2000/XP */
#if !defined(WIN32)
#  include <unistd.h>
#else
#  include <io.h>
#  include <fcntl.h>
#  include <direct.h>
#endif

/************************************************************************/
/*                              VSIFOpen()                              */
/************************************************************************/

FILE *VSIFOpen( const char * pszFilename, const char * pszAccess )

{
#if defined(WIN32)
    FILE *fp = nullptr;
    if( CPLTestBool( CPLGetConfigOption( "GDAL_FILENAME_IS_UTF8", "YES" ) ) )
    {
        wchar_t *pwszFilename =
            CPLRecodeToWChar( pszFilename, CPL_ENC_UTF8, CPL_ENC_UCS2 );
        wchar_t *pwszAccess =
            CPLRecodeToWChar( pszAccess, CPL_ENC_UTF8, CPL_ENC_UCS2 );

        fp = _wfopen( pwszFilename, pwszAccess );

        CPLFree( pwszFilename );
        CPLFree( pwszAccess );
    }
    else
    {
        // Are the casts really necessary?
        fp = fopen(const_cast<char *>(pszFilename),
                   const_cast<char *>(pszAccess));
    }
#else
    FILE *fp = fopen(pszFilename, pszAccess);
#endif

#ifdef VSI_DEBUG
    // Capture the error from fopen to avoid being overwritten by errors
    // from VSIDebug3.
    const int nError = errno;
    VSIDebug3( "VSIFOpen(%s,%s) = %p", pszFilename, pszAccess, fp );
    errno = nError;
#endif

    return fp;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                             VSIFClose()                              */
/************************************************************************/

int VSIFClose( FILE * fp )

{
    VSIDebug1( "VSIClose(%p)", fp );

    return fclose(fp);
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                              VSIFSeek()                              */
/************************************************************************/

int VSIFSeek( FILE * fp, long nOffset, int nWhence )

{
#ifdef DEBUG
    // To workaround Coverity strange warning about potential negative seek
    // CID 1340084 when called from dgnwrite.cpp.
    if( nWhence == SEEK_SET && nOffset < 0 )
        return -1;
#endif
    int nResult = fseek( fp, nOffset, nWhence );

#ifdef VSI_DEBUG
    // Capture the error from fseek to avoid being overwritten by errors
    // from VSIDebug.
    const int nError = errno;

    if( nWhence == SEEK_SET )
    {
        VSIDebug3( "VSIFSeek(%p,%ld,SEEK_SET) = %d", fp, nOffset, nResult );
    }
    else if( nWhence == SEEK_END )
    {
        VSIDebug3( "VSIFSeek(%p,%ld,SEEK_END) = %d", fp, nOffset, nResult );
    }
    else if( nWhence == SEEK_CUR )
    {
        VSIDebug3( "VSIFSeek(%p,%ld,SEEK_CUR) = %d", fp, nOffset, nResult );
    }
    else
    {
        VSIDebug4( "VSIFSeek(%p,%ld,%d-Unknown) = %d",
                   fp, nOffset, nWhence, nResult );
    }

    errno = nError;
#endif

    return nResult;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                              VSIFTell()                              */
/************************************************************************/

long VSIFTell( FILE * fp )

{
    const long nOffset = ftell(fp);

#ifdef VSI_DEBUG
    // Capture the error from ftell to avoid being overwritten by errors
    // from VSIDebug.
    const int nError = errno;
    VSIDebug2( "VSIFTell(%p) = %ld", fp, nOffset );
    errno = nError;
#endif

    return nOffset;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                             VSIRewind()                              */
/************************************************************************/

void VSIRewind( FILE * fp )

{
    VSIDebug1("VSIRewind(%p)", fp );
    rewind( fp );
#ifdef VSI_DEBUG
    // Capture the error rewind ftell to avoid being overwritten by errors
    // from VSIDebug.
    const int nError = errno;
    VSIDebug2( "VSIRewind(%p) errno = %d", fp, nError );
    errno = nError;
#endif
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                              VSIFRead()                              */
/************************************************************************/

size_t VSIFRead( void * pBuffer, size_t nSize, size_t nCount, FILE * fp )

{
    const size_t nResult = fread( pBuffer, nSize, nCount, fp );

#ifdef VSI_DEBUG
    // Capture the error from fread to avoid being overwritten by errors
    // from VSIDebug.
    const int nError = errno;
    VSIDebug4( "VSIFRead(%p,%ld,%ld) = %ld",
               fp, static_cast<long>(nSize), static_cast<long>(nCount),
               static_cast<long>(nResult) );
    errno = nError;
#endif

    return nResult;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                             VSIFWrite()                              */
/************************************************************************/

size_t VSIFWrite( const void *pBuffer, size_t nSize, size_t nCount, FILE * fp )

{
    const size_t nResult = fwrite( pBuffer, nSize, nCount, fp );

#ifdef VSI_DEBUG
    // Capture the error from fwrite to avoid being overwritten by errors
    // from VSIDebug.
    const int nError = errno;
    VSIDebug4( "VSIFWrite(%p,%ld,%ld) = %ld",
               fp, static_cast<long>(nSize), static_cast<long>(nCount),
               static_cast<long>(nResult) );
    errno = nError;
#endif

    return nResult;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                             VSIFFlush()                              */
/************************************************************************/

void VSIFFlush( FILE * fp )

{
#ifdef VSI_DEBUG
    VSIDebug1( "VSIFFlush(%p)", fp );
    const int result =
#endif
        fflush( fp );

#ifdef VSI_DEBUG
    // Capture the error rewind ftell to avoid being overwritten by errors
    // from VSIDebug.
    const int nError = errno;
    VSIDebug2( "VSIRewind(%p) errno = %d", fp, nError );
    if( result != 0 )
    {
        CPLError( CE_Failure, CPLE_FileIO, "Flush failed.  errno = %d",
                  nError);
    }
    errno = nError;
#endif
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                              VSIFGets()                              */
/************************************************************************/

char *VSIFGets( char *pszBuffer, int nBufferSize, FILE * fp )

{
    return fgets( pszBuffer, nBufferSize, fp );
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                              VSIFGetc()                              */
/************************************************************************/

int VSIFGetc( FILE * fp )

{
    return fgetc( fp );
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                             VSIUngetc()                              */
/************************************************************************/

int VSIUngetc( int c, FILE * fp )

{
    return ungetc( c, fp );
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                             VSIFPrintf()                             */
/*                                                                      */
/*      This is a little more complicated than just calling             */
/*      fprintf() because of the variable arguments.  Instead we        */
/*      have to use vfprintf().                                         */
/************************************************************************/

int VSIFPrintf( FILE * fp, CPL_FORMAT_STRING(const char * pszFormat), ... )

{
    va_list args;

    va_start( args, pszFormat );
    const int nReturn = vfprintf( fp, pszFormat, args );
    va_end( args );

    return nReturn;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                              VSIFEof()                               */
/************************************************************************/

int VSIFEof( FILE * fp )

{
    return feof( fp );
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                              VSIFPuts()                              */
/************************************************************************/

int VSIFPuts( const char * pszString, FILE * fp )

{
    return fputs( pszString, fp );
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                              VSIFPutc()                              */
/************************************************************************/

int VSIFPutc( int nChar, FILE * fp )

{
    return fputc( nChar, fp );
}

#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS
#include "cpl_multiproc.h"

static CPLMutex* hMemStatMutex = nullptr;
static size_t nCurrentTotalAllocs = 0;
static size_t nMaxTotalAllocs = 0;
static GUIntBig nVSIMallocs = 0;
static GUIntBig nVSICallocs = 0;
static GUIntBig nVSIReallocs = 0;
static GUIntBig nVSIFrees = 0;

/************************************************************************/
/*                         VSIShowMemStats()                            */
/************************************************************************/

void VSIShowMemStats();

void VSIShowMemStats()
{
    char* pszShowMemStats = getenv("CPL_SHOW_MEM_STATS");
    if( pszShowMemStats == nullptr || pszShowMemStats[0] == '\0' )
        return;
    printf("Current VSI memory usage        : " CPL_FRMT_GUIB " bytes\n", /*ok*/
           static_cast<GUIntBig>(nCurrentTotalAllocs));
    printf("Maximum VSI memory usage        : " CPL_FRMT_GUIB " bytes\n", /*ok*/
           static_cast<GUIntBig>(nMaxTotalAllocs));
    printf("Number of calls to VSIMalloc()  : " CPL_FRMT_GUIB "\n", /*ok*/
           nVSIMallocs);
    printf("Number of calls to VSICalloc()  : " CPL_FRMT_GUIB "\n", /*ok*/
           nVSICallocs);
    printf("Number of calls to VSIRealloc() : " CPL_FRMT_GUIB "\n", /*ok*/
           nVSIReallocs);
    printf("Number of calls to VSIFree()    : " CPL_FRMT_GUIB "\n", /*ok*/
           nVSIFrees);
    printf("VSIMalloc + VSICalloc - VSIFree : " CPL_FRMT_GUIB "\n", /*ok*/
           nVSIMallocs + nVSICallocs - nVSIFrees);
}
#endif

#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC
static GIntBig nMaxPeakAllocSize = -1;
static GIntBig nMaxCumulAllocSize = -1;
#endif

/************************************************************************/
/*                             VSICalloc()                              */
/************************************************************************/

#ifndef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC

/** Analog of calloc(). Use VSIFree() to free */
void *VSICalloc( size_t nCount, size_t nSize )
{
    // cppcheck-suppress invalidFunctionArg
    return calloc( nCount, nSize );
}

#else  // DEBUG_VSIMALLOC

void *VSICalloc( size_t nCount, size_t nSize )
{
    size_t nMul = nCount * nSize;
    if( nCount != 0 && nMul / nCount != nSize )
    {
        fprintf(stderr, "Overflow in VSICalloc(%d, %d)\n", /*ok*/
                static_cast<int>(nCount), static_cast<int>(nSize));
        return nullptr;
    }
    if( nMaxPeakAllocSize < 0 )
    {
        char* pszMaxPeakAllocSize = getenv("CPL_MAX_PEAK_ALLOC_SIZE");
        nMaxPeakAllocSize = pszMaxPeakAllocSize ? atoi(pszMaxPeakAllocSize) : 0;
        char* pszMaxCumulAllocSize = getenv("CPL_MAX_CUMUL_ALLOC_SIZE");
        nMaxCumulAllocSize =
            pszMaxCumulAllocSize ? atoi(pszMaxCumulAllocSize) : 0;
    }
    if( nMaxPeakAllocSize > 0 &&
        static_cast<GIntBig>(nMul) > nMaxPeakAllocSize )
        return nullptr;
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS
    if( nMaxCumulAllocSize > 0 &&
        static_cast<GIntBig>(nCurrentTotalAllocs) + static_cast<GIntBig>(nMul) >
        nMaxCumulAllocSize )
        return nullptr;
#endif

#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_MPROTECT
    char* ptr = nullptr;
    const size_t nPageSize = getpagesize();
    const size_t nRequestedSize =
        (3 * sizeof(void*) + nMul + nPageSize - 1) & ~(nPageSize - 1);
    if( nRequestedSize < nMul )
        return nullptr;
    posix_memalign((void**)&ptr, nPageSize, nRequestedSize);
    if( ptr == nullptr )
        return nullptr;
    memset(ptr + 2 * sizeof(void*), 0, nMul);
#else
    const size_t nRequestedSize = 3 * sizeof(void*) + nMul;
    if( nRequestedSize < nMul )
        return nullptr;
    char* ptr = static_cast<char *>(calloc(1, nRequestedSize));
    if( ptr == nullptr )
        return nullptr;
#endif

    ptr[0] = 'V';
    ptr[1] = 'S';
    ptr[2] = 'I';
    ptr[3] = 'M';
    // cppcheck-suppress pointerSize
    memcpy(ptr + sizeof(void*), &nMul, sizeof(void*));
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nMul + 0] = 'E';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nMul + 1] = 'V';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nMul + 2] = 'S';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nMul + 3] = 'I';
#if defined(DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS) || defined(DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_VERBOSE)
    {
        CPLMutexHolderD(&hMemStatMutex);
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_VERBOSE
        if( nMul > THRESHOLD_PRINT )
        {
            fprintf(stderr, "Thread[%p] VSICalloc(%d,%d) = %p" /*ok*/
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS
                         ", current_cumul = " CPL_FRMT_GUIB
#ifdef DEBUG_BLOCK_CACHE_USE
                         ", block_cache_used = " CPL_FRMT_GIB
#endif
                         ", mal+cal-free = %d"
#endif
                         "\n",
                    (void*)CPLGetPID(),
                    static_cast<int>(nCount),
                    static_cast<int>(nSize), ptr + 2 * sizeof(void*)
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS
                    , static_cast<GUIntBig>(nCurrentTotalAllocs + nMul)
#ifdef DEBUG_BLOCK_CACHE_USE
                    , GDALGetCacheUsed64()
#endif
                    , static_cast<int>(nVSIMallocs + nVSICallocs - nVSIFrees)
#endif
                );
        }
#endif
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS
        nVSICallocs++;
        if( nMaxTotalAllocs == 0 )
            atexit(VSIShowMemStats);
        nCurrentTotalAllocs += nMul;
        if( nCurrentTotalAllocs > nMaxTotalAllocs )
            nMaxTotalAllocs = nCurrentTotalAllocs;
#endif
    }
#endif
    // cppcheck-suppress memleak
    return ptr + 2 * sizeof(void*);
}
#endif   // DEBUG_VSIMALLOC

/************************************************************************/
/*                             VSIMalloc()                              */
/************************************************************************/

#ifndef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC
/** Analog of malloc(). Use VSIFree() to free */
void *VSIMalloc( size_t nSize )

{
    return malloc( nSize );
}

#else  // DEBUG_VSIMALLOC

void *VSIMalloc( size_t nSize )

{
    if( nMaxPeakAllocSize < 0 )
    {
        char* pszMaxPeakAllocSize = getenv("CPL_MAX_PEAK_ALLOC_SIZE");
        nMaxPeakAllocSize = pszMaxPeakAllocSize ? atoi(pszMaxPeakAllocSize) : 0;
        char* pszMaxCumulAllocSize = getenv("CPL_MAX_CUMUL_ALLOC_SIZE");
        nMaxCumulAllocSize =
            pszMaxCumulAllocSize ? atoi(pszMaxCumulAllocSize) : 0;
    }
    if( nMaxPeakAllocSize > 0 &&
        static_cast<GIntBig>(nSize) > nMaxPeakAllocSize )
        return nullptr;
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS
    if( nMaxCumulAllocSize > 0 &&
        static_cast<GIntBig>(nCurrentTotalAllocs) +
        static_cast<GIntBig>(nSize) > nMaxCumulAllocSize )
        return nullptr;
#endif  // DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS

#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_MPROTECT
    char* ptr = nullptr;
    const size_t nPageSize = getpagesize();
    const size_t nRequestedSize =
        (3 * sizeof(void*) + nSize + nPageSize - 1) & ~(nPageSize - 1);
    if( nRequestedSize < nSize )
        return nullptr;
    posix_memalign((void**)&ptr, nPageSize, nRequestedSize );
#else
    const size_t nRequestedSize = 3 * sizeof(void*) + nSize;
    if( nRequestedSize < nSize )
        return nullptr;
    char* ptr = static_cast<char *>(malloc(nRequestedSize));
#endif  // DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_MPROTECT
    if( ptr == nullptr )
        return nullptr;
    ptr[0] = 'V';
    ptr[1] = 'S';
    ptr[2] = 'I';
    ptr[3] = 'M';
    // cppcheck-suppress pointerSize
    memcpy(ptr + sizeof(void*), &nSize, sizeof(void*));
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nSize + 0] = 'E';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nSize + 1] = 'V';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nSize + 2] = 'S';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nSize + 3] = 'I';
#if defined(DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS) || defined(DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_VERBOSE)
    {
        CPLMutexHolderD(&hMemStatMutex);
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_VERBOSE
        if( nSize > THRESHOLD_PRINT )
        {
            fprintf(stderr, "Thread[%p] VSIMalloc(%d) = %p"/*ok*/
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS
                    ", current_cumul = " CPL_FRMT_GUIB
#ifdef DEBUG_BLOCK_CACHE_USE
                    ", block_cache_used = " CPL_FRMT_GIB
#endif
                    ", mal+cal-free = %d"
#endif
                    "\n",
                    (void*)CPLGetPID(),
                    static_cast<int>(nSize), ptr + 2 * sizeof(void*)
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS
                    , static_cast<GUIntBig>(nCurrentTotalAllocs + nSize)
#ifdef DEBUG_BLOCK_CACHE_USE
                    , GDALGetCacheUsed64()
#endif
                    , static_cast<int>(nVSIMallocs + nVSICallocs - nVSIFrees)
#endif
                );
        }
#endif  // DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_VERBOSE
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS
        nVSIMallocs++;
        if( nMaxTotalAllocs == 0 )
            atexit(VSIShowMemStats);
        nCurrentTotalAllocs += nSize;
        if( nCurrentTotalAllocs > nMaxTotalAllocs )
            nMaxTotalAllocs = nCurrentTotalAllocs;
#endif  // DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS
    }
#endif  // DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS || DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_VERBOSE
    // cppcheck-suppress memleak
    return ptr + 2 * sizeof(void*);
}

static void VSICheckMarkerBegin(char* ptr)
{
    if( memcmp(ptr, "VSIM", 4) != 0 )
    {
        CPLError(CE_Fatal, CPLE_AppDefined,
                 "Inconsistent use of VSI memory allocation primitives "
                 "for %p : %c%c%c%c",
                 ptr, ptr[0], ptr[1], ptr[2], ptr[3]);
    }
}

static void VSICheckMarkerEnd(char* ptr, size_t nEnd)
{
    if( memcmp(ptr + nEnd, "EVSI", 4) != 0 )
    {
        CPLError(CE_Fatal, CPLE_AppDefined,
                 "Memory has been written after the end of %p", ptr);
    }
}

#endif  // DEBUG_VSIMALLOC

/************************************************************************/
/*                             VSIRealloc()                             */
/************************************************************************/

/** Analog of realloc(). Use VSIFree() to free */
void * VSIRealloc( void * pData, size_t nNewSize )

{
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC
    if( pData == nullptr )
        return VSIMalloc(nNewSize);

    char* ptr = ((char*)pData) - 2 * sizeof(void*);
    VSICheckMarkerBegin(ptr);

    size_t nOldSize = 0;
    // cppcheck-suppress pointerSize
    memcpy(&nOldSize, ptr + sizeof(void*), sizeof(void*));
    VSICheckMarkerEnd(ptr, 2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize);

    if( nMaxPeakAllocSize < 0 )
    {
        char* pszMaxPeakAllocSize = getenv("CPL_MAX_PEAK_ALLOC_SIZE");
        nMaxPeakAllocSize = pszMaxPeakAllocSize ? atoi(pszMaxPeakAllocSize) : 0;
    }
    if( nMaxPeakAllocSize > 0 &&
        static_cast<GIntBig>(nNewSize) > nMaxPeakAllocSize )
        return nullptr;
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS
    if( nMaxCumulAllocSize > 0 &&
        static_cast<GIntBig>(nCurrentTotalAllocs) +
        static_cast<GIntBig>(nNewSize) -
        static_cast<GIntBig>(nOldSize) > nMaxCumulAllocSize )
        return nullptr;
#endif

    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 0] = 'I';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 1] = 'S';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 2] = 'V';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 3] = 'E';

#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_MPROTECT
    char* newptr = nullptr;
    const size_t nPageSize = getpagesize();
    const size_t nRequestedSize =
        (nNewSize + 3 * sizeof(void*) + nPageSize - 1) & ~(nPageSize - 1);
    if( nRequestedSize < nNewSize )
    {
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 0] = 'E';
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 1] = 'V';
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 2] = 'S';
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 3] = 'I';
        return nullptr;
    }
    posix_memalign((void**)&newptr, nPageSize, nRequestedSize);
    if( newptr == nullptr )
    {
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 0] = 'E';
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 1] = 'V';
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 2] = 'S';
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 3] = 'I';
        return nullptr;
    }
    memcpy(newptr + 2 * sizeof(void*), pData, nOldSize);
    ptr[0] = 'M';
    ptr[1] = 'I';
    ptr[2] = 'S';
    ptr[3] = 'V';
    free(ptr);
    newptr[0] = 'V';
    newptr[1] = 'S';
    newptr[2] = 'I';
    newptr[3] = 'M';
#else
    const size_t nRequestedSize = 3 * sizeof(void*) + nNewSize;
    if( nRequestedSize < nNewSize )
    {
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 0] = 'E';
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 1] = 'V';
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 2] = 'S';
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 3] = 'I';
        return nullptr;
    }
    void* newptr = realloc(ptr, nRequestedSize);
    if( newptr == nullptr )
    {
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 0] = 'E';
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 1] = 'V';
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 2] = 'S';
        ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 3] = 'I';
        return nullptr;
    }
#endif
    ptr = static_cast<char *>(newptr);
    // cppcheck-suppress pointerSize
    memcpy(ptr + sizeof(void*), &nNewSize, sizeof(void*));
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nNewSize + 0] = 'E';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nNewSize + 1] = 'V';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nNewSize + 2] = 'S';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nNewSize + 3] = 'I';

#if defined(DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS) || defined(DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_VERBOSE)
    {
        CPLMutexHolderD(&hMemStatMutex);
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_VERBOSE
        if( nNewSize > THRESHOLD_PRINT )
        {
            fprintf(stderr, "Thread[%p] VSIRealloc(%p, %d) = %p"/*ok*/
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS
                    ", current_cumul = " CPL_FRMT_GUIB
#ifdef DEBUG_BLOCK_CACHE_USE
                    ", block_cache_used = " CPL_FRMT_GIB
#endif
                    ", mal+cal-free = %d"
#endif
                    "\n",
                    (void*)CPLGetPID(),
                    pData,
                    static_cast<int>(nNewSize),
                    ptr + 2 * sizeof(void*)
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS
                    , static_cast<GUIntBig>(
                        nCurrentTotalAllocs - nOldSize + nNewSize)
#ifdef DEBUG_BLOCK_CACHE_USE
                    , GDALGetCacheUsed64()
#endif
                    , static_cast<int>(nVSIMallocs + nVSICallocs - nVSIFrees)
#endif
                    );
        }
#endif
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS
        nVSIReallocs++;
        nCurrentTotalAllocs -= nOldSize;
        nCurrentTotalAllocs += nNewSize;
        if( nCurrentTotalAllocs > nMaxTotalAllocs )
            nMaxTotalAllocs = nCurrentTotalAllocs;
#endif
    }
#endif
    return ptr + 2 * sizeof(void*);
#else
    return realloc( pData, nNewSize );
#endif
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                              VSIFree()                               */
/************************************************************************/

/** Analog of free() for data allocated with VSIMalloc(), VSICalloc(), VSIRealloc() */
void VSIFree( void * pData )

{
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC
    if( pData == nullptr )
        return;

    char* ptr = ((char*)pData) - 2 * sizeof(void*);
    VSICheckMarkerBegin(ptr);
    size_t nOldSize = 0;
    // cppcheck-suppress pointerSize
    memcpy(&nOldSize, ptr + sizeof(void*), sizeof(void*));
    VSICheckMarkerEnd(ptr, 2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize);
    ptr[0] = 'M';
    ptr[1] = 'I';
    ptr[2] = 'S';
    ptr[3] = 'V';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 0] = 'I';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 1] = 'S';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 2] = 'V';
    ptr[2 * sizeof(void*) + nOldSize + 3] = 'E';
#if defined(DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS) || defined(DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_VERBOSE)
    {
        CPLMutexHolderD(&hMemStatMutex);
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_VERBOSE
        if( nOldSize > THRESHOLD_PRINT )
        {
            fprintf(stderr, "Thread[%p] VSIFree(%p, (%d bytes))\n", /*ok*/
                    (void*)CPLGetPID(), pData, static_cast<int>(nOldSize));
        }
#endif
#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_STATS
        nVSIFrees++;
        nCurrentTotalAllocs -= nOldSize;
#endif
    }
#endif

#ifdef DEBUG_VSIMALLOC_MPROTECT
    mprotect(ptr, nOldSize + 2 * sizeof(void*), PROT_NONE);
#else
    free(ptr);
#endif

#else
    if( pData != nullptr )
        free( pData );
#endif
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                      VSIMallocAligned()                              */
/************************************************************************/

/** Allocates a buffer with an alignment constraint.
 *
 * The return value must be freed with VSIFreeAligned().
 *
 * @param nAlignment Must be a power of 2, multiple of sizeof(void*), and
 *                   lesser than 256.
 * @param nSize Size of the buffer to allocate.
 * @return a buffer aligned on nAlignment and of size nSize, or NULL
 * @since GDAL 2.2
 */

void* VSIMallocAligned( size_t nAlignment, size_t nSize )
{
#if defined(HAVE_POSIX_MEMALIGN) && !defined(DEBUG_VSIMALLOC)
    void* pRet = nullptr;
    if( posix_memalign( &pRet, nAlignment, nSize ) != 0 )
    {
        pRet = nullptr;
    }
    return pRet;
#elif defined(_WIN32) && !defined(DEBUG_VSIMALLOC)
    return _aligned_malloc( nSize, nAlignment );
#else
    // Check constraints on alignment.
    if( nAlignment < sizeof(void*) || nAlignment >= 256 ||
        (nAlignment & (nAlignment - 1)) != 0 )
        return nullptr;
    // Detect overflow.
    if( nSize + nAlignment < nSize )
        return nullptr;
    // TODO(schwehr): C++11 has std::aligned_storage, alignas, and related.
    GByte* pabyData = static_cast<GByte*>(VSIMalloc( nSize + nAlignment ));
    if( pabyData == nullptr )
        return nullptr;
    size_t nShift =
        nAlignment - (reinterpret_cast<size_t>(pabyData) % nAlignment);
    GByte* pabyAligned = pabyData + nShift;
    // Guaranteed to fit on a byte since nAlignment < 256.
    pabyAligned[-1] = static_cast<GByte>(nShift);
    return pabyAligned;
#endif
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                     VSIMallocAlignedAuto()                           */
/************************************************************************/

/** Allocates a buffer with an alignment constraint such that it can be
 * used by the most demanding vector instruction set on that platform.
 *
 * The return value must be freed with VSIFreeAligned().
 *
 * @param nSize Size of the buffer to allocate.
 * @return an aligned buffer of size nSize, or NULL
 * @since GDAL 2.2
 */

void* VSIMallocAlignedAuto( size_t nSize )
{
    // We could potentially dynamically detect the capability of the CPU
    // but to simplify use 64 for AVX512 requirements (we use only AVX256
    // currently).
    return VSIMallocAligned(64, nSize);
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                        VSIMallocAlignedAutoVerbose()                 */
/************************************************************************/

/** See VSIMallocAlignedAuto() */
void *VSIMallocAlignedAutoVerbose( size_t nSize, const char* pszFile,
                                   int nLine )
{
    void* pRet = VSIMallocAlignedAuto(nSize);
    if( pRet == nullptr && nSize != 0 )
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_OutOfMemory,
                 "%s, %d: cannot allocate " CPL_FRMT_GUIB " bytes",
                 pszFile ? pszFile : "(unknown file)",
                 nLine, static_cast<GUIntBig>(nSize));
    }
    return pRet;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                        VSIFreeAligned()                              */
/************************************************************************/

/** Free a buffer allocated with VSIMallocAligned().
 *
 * @param ptr Buffer to free.
 * @since GDAL 2.2
 */

void VSIFreeAligned( void* ptr )
{
#if defined(HAVE_POSIX_MEMALIGN) && !defined(DEBUG_VSIMALLOC)
    free(ptr);
#elif defined(_WIN32) && !defined(DEBUG_VSIMALLOC)
    _aligned_free(ptr);
#else
    if( ptr == nullptr )
        return;
    GByte* pabyAligned = static_cast<GByte*>(ptr);
    size_t nShift = pabyAligned[-1];
    VSIFree( pabyAligned - nShift );
#endif
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                             VSIStrdup()                              */
/************************************************************************/

/** Analog of strdup(). Use VSIFree() to free */
char *VSIStrdup( const char * pszString )

{
    const size_t nSize = strlen(pszString) + 1;
    char* ptr = static_cast<char*>( VSIMalloc(nSize) );
    if( ptr == nullptr )
        return nullptr;
    memcpy(ptr, pszString, nSize);
    return ptr;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                          VSICheckMul2()                              */
/************************************************************************/

CPL_NOSANITIZE_UNSIGNED_INT_OVERFLOW
static size_t VSICheckMul2( size_t mul1, size_t mul2, bool *pbOverflowFlag,
                            const char* pszFile, int nLine )
{
    const size_t res = mul1 * mul2;
    if( mul1 != 0 )
    {
        if( res / mul1 == mul2 )
        {
            if( pbOverflowFlag )
                *pbOverflowFlag = FALSE;
            return res;
        }
        else
        {
            if( pbOverflowFlag )
                *pbOverflowFlag = TRUE;
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_OutOfMemory,
                     "%s: %d: Multiplication overflow : " CPL_FRMT_GUIB
                     " * " CPL_FRMT_GUIB,
                     pszFile ? pszFile : "(unknown file)",
                     nLine,
                     static_cast<GUIntBig>(mul1),
                     static_cast<GUIntBig>(mul2));
        }
    }
    else
    {
        if( pbOverflowFlag )
             *pbOverflowFlag = FALSE;
    }
    return 0;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                          VSICheckMul3()                              */
/************************************************************************/

CPL_NOSANITIZE_UNSIGNED_INT_OVERFLOW
static size_t VSICheckMul3( size_t mul1, size_t mul2, size_t mul3,
                            bool *pbOverflowFlag,
                            const char* pszFile, int nLine )
{
    if( mul1 != 0 )
    {
        const size_t res = mul1 * mul2;
        if( res / mul1 == mul2 )
        {
            const size_t res2 = res * mul3;
            if( mul3 != 0 )
            {
                if( res2 / mul3 == res )
                {
                    if( pbOverflowFlag )
                        *pbOverflowFlag = false;
                    return res2;
                }
                else
                {
                    if( pbOverflowFlag )
                        *pbOverflowFlag = true;
                    CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_OutOfMemory,
                             "%s: %d: Multiplication overflow : " CPL_FRMT_GUIB
                             " * " CPL_FRMT_GUIB " * " CPL_FRMT_GUIB,
                             pszFile ? pszFile : "(unknown file)",
                             nLine,
                             static_cast<GUIntBig>(mul1),
                             static_cast<GUIntBig>(mul2),
                             static_cast<GUIntBig>(mul3));
                }
            }
            else
            {
                if( pbOverflowFlag )
                    *pbOverflowFlag = false;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            if( pbOverflowFlag )
                *pbOverflowFlag = true;
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_OutOfMemory,
                     "%s: %d: Multiplication overflow : " CPL_FRMT_GUIB " * "
                     CPL_FRMT_GUIB " * " CPL_FRMT_GUIB,
                     pszFile ? pszFile : "(unknown file)",
                     nLine,
                     static_cast<GUIntBig>(mul1),
                     static_cast<GUIntBig>(mul2),
                     static_cast<GUIntBig>(mul3));
        }
    }
    else
    {
        if( pbOverflowFlag )
             *pbOverflowFlag = false;
    }
    return 0;
}

/**
 VSIMalloc2 allocates (nSize1 * nSize2) bytes.
 In case of overflow of the multiplication, or if memory allocation fails, a
 NULL pointer is returned and a CE_Failure error is raised with CPLError().
 If nSize1 == 0 || nSize2 == 0, a NULL pointer will also be returned.
 CPLFree() or VSIFree() can be used to free memory allocated by this function.
*/
void CPL_DLL *VSIMalloc2( size_t nSize1, size_t nSize2 )
{
    return VSIMalloc2Verbose( nSize1, nSize2, nullptr, 0);
}

/**
 VSIMalloc3 allocates (nSize1 * nSize2 * nSize3) bytes.
 In case of overflow of the multiplication, or if memory allocation fails, a
 NULL pointer is returned and a CE_Failure error is raised with CPLError().
 If nSize1 == 0 || nSize2 == 0 || nSize3 == 0, a NULL pointer will also be
 returned.  CPLFree() or VSIFree() can be used to free memory allocated by this
 function.
*/
void CPL_DLL *VSIMalloc3( size_t nSize1, size_t nSize2, size_t nSize3 )
{
    return VSIMalloc3Verbose( nSize1, nSize2, nSize3, nullptr, 0);
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                          VSIMallocVerbose()                          */
/************************************************************************/

void *VSIMallocVerbose( size_t nSize, const char* pszFile, int nLine )
{
    void* pRet = VSIMalloc(nSize);
    if( pRet == nullptr && nSize != 0 )
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_OutOfMemory,
                 "%s, %d: cannot allocate " CPL_FRMT_GUIB " bytes",
                 pszFile ? pszFile : "(unknown file)",
                 nLine, static_cast<GUIntBig>(nSize));
    }
    return pRet;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                          VSIMalloc2Verbose()                         */
/************************************************************************/

void *VSIMalloc2Verbose( size_t nSize1, size_t nSize2, const char* pszFile,
                         int nLine )
{
    bool bOverflowFlag = false;
    const size_t nSizeToAllocate =
        VSICheckMul2( nSize1, nSize2, &bOverflowFlag, pszFile, nLine );
    if( bOverflowFlag || nSizeToAllocate == 0 )
        return nullptr;

    void* pRet = VSIMalloc(nSizeToAllocate);
    if( pRet == nullptr )
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_OutOfMemory,
                 "%s, %d: cannot allocate " CPL_FRMT_GUIB " bytes",
                 pszFile ? pszFile : "(unknown file)",
                 nLine,
                 static_cast<GUIntBig>(nSize1) * static_cast<GUIntBig>(nSize2));
    }
    return pRet;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                          VSIMalloc3Verbose()                         */
/************************************************************************/

void *VSIMalloc3Verbose( size_t nSize1, size_t nSize2, size_t nSize3,
                         const char* pszFile, int nLine )
{
    bool bOverflowFlag = false;
    size_t nSizeToAllocate = VSICheckMul3( nSize1, nSize2, nSize3,
                                           &bOverflowFlag, pszFile, nLine );
    if( bOverflowFlag || nSizeToAllocate == 0 )
        return nullptr;

    void* pRet = VSIMalloc(nSizeToAllocate);
    if( pRet == nullptr )
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_OutOfMemory,
                 "%s, %d: cannot allocate " CPL_FRMT_GUIB " bytes",
                 pszFile ? pszFile : "(unknown file)",
                 nLine,
                 static_cast<GUIntBig>(nSize1) * static_cast<GUIntBig>(nSize2) *
                 static_cast<GUIntBig>(nSize3));
    }
    return pRet;
}
/************************************************************************/
/*                          VSICallocVerbose()                          */
/************************************************************************/

void *VSICallocVerbose( size_t nCount, size_t nSize, const char* pszFile,
                        int nLine )
{
    void* pRet = VSICalloc(nCount, nSize);
    if( pRet == nullptr && nCount != 0 && nSize != 0 )
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_OutOfMemory,
                 "%s, %d: cannot allocate " CPL_FRMT_GUIB "x" CPL_FRMT_GUIB " bytes",
                 pszFile ? pszFile : "(unknown file)",
                 nLine,
                 static_cast<GUIntBig>(nCount), static_cast<GUIntBig>(nSize));
    }
    return pRet;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                          VSIReallocVerbose()                         */
/************************************************************************/

void *VSIReallocVerbose( void* pOldPtr, size_t nNewSize, const char* pszFile,
                         int nLine )
{
    void* pRet = VSIRealloc(pOldPtr, nNewSize);
    if( pRet == nullptr && nNewSize != 0 )
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_OutOfMemory,
                 "%s, %d: cannot allocate " CPL_FRMT_GUIB " bytes",
                 pszFile ? pszFile : "(unknown file)",
                 nLine, static_cast<GUIntBig>(nNewSize));
    }
    return pRet;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                          VSIStrdupVerbose()                          */
/************************************************************************/

char *VSIStrdupVerbose( const char* pszStr, const char* pszFile, int nLine )
{
    char* pRet = VSIStrdup(pszStr);
    if( pRet == nullptr )
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_OutOfMemory,
                 "%s, %d: cannot allocate " CPL_FRMT_GUIB " bytes",
                 pszFile ? pszFile : "(unknown file)",
                 nLine, static_cast<GUIntBig>(strlen(pszStr) + 1));
    }
    return pRet;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                              VSIStat()                               */
/************************************************************************/

int VSIStat( const char * pszFilename, VSIStatBuf * pStatBuf )

{
#if defined(WIN32)
    if( CPLTestBool( CPLGetConfigOption( "GDAL_FILENAME_IS_UTF8", "YES" ) ) )
    {
        wchar_t *pwszFilename =
            CPLRecodeToWChar( pszFilename, CPL_ENC_UTF8, CPL_ENC_UCS2 );

        int nResult = _wstat( pwszFilename, reinterpret_cast<struct _stat *>(pStatBuf) );

        CPLFree( pwszFilename );

        return nResult;
    }

#endif
    return stat( pszFilename, pStatBuf );
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                              VSITime()                               */
/************************************************************************/

unsigned long VSITime( unsigned long * pnTimeToSet )

{
    time_t tTime;

    tTime = time( nullptr );

    if( pnTimeToSet != nullptr )
        *pnTimeToSet = static_cast<unsigned long>( tTime );

    return static_cast<unsigned long>( tTime );
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                              VSICTime()                              */
/************************************************************************/

const char *VSICTime( unsigned long nTime )

{
    time_t tTime = static_cast<time_t>(nTime);

    return reinterpret_cast<const char *>(ctime( &tTime ));
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                             VSIGMTime()                              */
/************************************************************************/

struct tm *VSIGMTime( const time_t *pnTime, struct tm *poBrokenTime )
{

#if HAVE_GMTIME_R
    gmtime_r( pnTime, poBrokenTime );
#else
    struct tm *poTime = gmtime( pnTime );
    memcpy( poBrokenTime, poTime, sizeof(tm) );
#endif

    return poBrokenTime;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                             VSILocalTime()                           */
/************************************************************************/

struct tm *VSILocalTime( const time_t *pnTime, struct tm *poBrokenTime )
{

#if HAVE_LOCALTIME_R
    localtime_r( pnTime, poBrokenTime );
#else
    struct tm *poTime = localtime( pnTime );
    memcpy( poBrokenTime, poTime, sizeof(tm) );
#endif

    return poBrokenTime;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                            VSIStrerror()                             */
/************************************************************************/

/** Return the error string corresponding to the error number. Do not free it */
char *VSIStrerror( int nErrno )

{
    return strerror( nErrno );
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                        CPLGetPhysicalRAM()                           */
/************************************************************************/

#if HAVE_SC_PHYS_PAGES

/** Return the total physical RAM in bytes.
 *
 * In the context of a container using cgroups (typically Docker), this
 * will take into account that limitation (starting with GDAL 2.4.0)
 *
 * You should generally use CPLGetUsablePhysicalRAM() instead.
 *
 * @return the total physical RAM in bytes (or 0 in case of failure).
 * @since GDAL 2.0
 */
GIntBig CPLGetPhysicalRAM( void )
{
    const long nPhysPages = sysconf(_SC_PHYS_PAGES);
    const long nPageSize = sysconf(_SC_PAGESIZE);
    if( nPhysPages < 0 || nPageSize < 0 )
        return 0;
    GIntBig nVal = static_cast<GIntBig>(nPhysPages) * nPageSize;

    // In a Docker container the memory might be limited
    // If no limitation, on 64 bit, 9223372036854771712 is returned.
    FILE* f = fopen("/sys/fs/cgroup/memory/memory.limit_in_bytes", "rb");
    if( f )
    {
        char szBuffer[32];
        const int nRead = static_cast<int>(
            fread(szBuffer, 1, sizeof(szBuffer)-1, f));
        szBuffer[nRead] = 0;
        fclose(f);
        const GUIntBig nLimit = CPLScanUIntBig(szBuffer, nRead);
        nVal = static_cast<GIntBig>(
            std::min(static_cast<GUIntBig>(nVal), nLimit));
    }

    return nVal;
}

#elif defined(__MACH__) && defined(__APPLE__)

#include <sys/types.h>
#include <sys/sysctl.h>

GIntBig CPLGetPhysicalRAM(void)
{
    GIntBig nPhysMem = 0;

    int mib[2] = { CTL_HW, HW_MEMSIZE };
    size_t nLengthRes = sizeof(nPhysMem);
    sysctl(mib, CPL_ARRAYSIZE(mib), &nPhysMem, &nLengthRes, nullptr, 0);

    return nPhysMem;
}

#elif defined(WIN32)

// GlobalMemoryStatusEx requires _WIN32_WINNT >= 0x0500.
#ifndef _WIN32_WINNT
#define _WIN32_WINNT 0x0500
#endif
#include <windows.h>

GIntBig CPLGetPhysicalRAM( void )
{
    MEMORYSTATUSEX statex;
    statex.ullTotalPhys = 0;
    statex.dwLength = sizeof (statex);
    GlobalMemoryStatusEx (&statex);
    return static_cast<GIntBig>( statex.ullTotalPhys );
}

#else

GIntBig CPLGetPhysicalRAM( void )
{
    static bool bOnce = false;
    if( !bOnce )
    {
        bOnce = true;
        CPLDebug("PORT", "No implementation for CPLGetPhysicalRAM()");
    }
    return 0;
}
#endif

/************************************************************************/
/*                       CPLGetUsablePhysicalRAM()                      */
/************************************************************************/

/** Return the total physical RAM, usable by a process, in bytes.
 *
 * This is the same as CPLGetPhysicalRAM() except it will limit to 2 GB
 * for 32 bit processes.
 *
 * Starting with GDAL 2.4.0, it will also take account resource limits on
 * Posix systems.
 *
 * Note: This memory may already be partly used by other processes.
 *
 * @return the total physical RAM, usable by a process, in bytes (or 0
 * in case of failure).
 * @since GDAL 2.0
 */
GIntBig CPLGetUsablePhysicalRAM( void )
{
    GIntBig nRAM = CPLGetPhysicalRAM();
#if SIZEOF_VOIDP == 4
    if( nRAM > INT_MAX )
        nRAM = INT_MAX;
#endif
#if HAVE_GETRLIMIT
    struct rlimit sLimit;
#   if HAVE_RLIMIT_AS
    const int res = RLIMIT_AS;
#   else
    // OpenBSD currently doesn't support RLIMIT_AS (mandated by Posix though)
    const int res = RLIMIT_DATA;
#   endif
    if( getrlimit( res, &sLimit) == 0 &&
        sLimit.rlim_cur != RLIM_INFINITY &&
        static_cast<GIntBig>(sLimit.rlim_cur) < nRAM )
    {
        nRAM = static_cast<GIntBig>(sLimit.rlim_cur);
    }
#endif
    return nRAM;
}
